INTRODUCTION
Parataekwondo was first introduced in the Paralympic Games program in Tokyo 2020, making it one of the most recent sports to be included1. While people with disabilities have been practicing the sport in martial arts academies for many years, it was only in 2009 that the World Taekwondo Federation officially recognized it as a para-sport by organizing the first Parataekwondo World Championship2. In 2015, the sport was included in the Paralympic program and made its debut at the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, which took place in 2021. The sport had its second appearance at the 2024 Paris Paralympic Games, and has been confirmed for the Los Angeles Paralympic Games in 2028. After becoming an official Paralympic sport, only two classes are eligible: K41 (bilateral amputation above or through the elbow and bilateral dysmelia) and K44 (unilateral amputation through or above the wrist, bilateral amputation below the elbow but above or through the wrist, unilateral dysmelia, or reduced muscle strength)3, with the K44 class having the highest number of para-athletes4.
Due to the comparatively recent introduction of the sport and its competition classes, knowledge about training practices and their adaptations to the sport remain limited. However, appropriate training is essential for para-athletes to achieve their best sports performance. To this end, coaches typically develop a program with a sequence of periods that follow a structured training framework and pre-established models for each phase of training5. This structure consists of macrocycles typically encompassing an entire season or year, which are divided into mesocycles, i.e. medium-term blocks lasting from several weeks to a few months; this are assigned specific objectives such as accumulation (focused on general physical and technical capacities), transmutation (enhancing sport-specific abilities), and realization or tapering phases (maximizing performance readiness for competition). Each mesocycle is further divided into microcycles, generally spanning one week, which detail the organization of daily training sessions, including load variation, intensity modulation, and recovery strategies6,7. As described by Carazo and Moncada8, block periodization in taekwondo utilizes these subdivisions to sequentially develop strength, power, and technical-tactical performance, while Koshcheyev and Dolbysheva9 emphasize that planning according to principles such as the pendulum allows strategic variation between specialized and contrasting microcycles, facilitating optimal adaptations and recovery within the pre-competitive mesocycle. This hierarchical and integrated structure ensures progressive overload, targeted adaptations, and peak performance at key competitions.
Olympic taekwondo is characterized by intermittent effort patterns, alternating between high-intensity bursts, such as explosive punches and kicks, and low-intensity periods corresponding to the intervals between actions10. This profile imposes a significant demand on the anaerobic alactic system for executing maximal efforts, while the aerobic system plays a crucial role in energy resynthesis and recovery between actions11. Therefore, it is essential to specifically prescribe and develop these metabolic demands during training to promote physiological adaptations that enhance competitive performance according to metabolic requirements12.
However, the success of a training program is dependent on various factors, such as the sleep pattern and mood of the athletes13,14. A study with elite Brazilian volleyball athletes identified a negative relationship between increased confusion levels, associated with mood, and perceived sleep quality, indicating that each onepoint increase in confusion was associated with a 19.7% reduction in sleep quality. Additionally, athletes who reported better sleep quality and won their matches showed lower levels of tension13. Recent evidence from para-swimming athletes has demonstrated that sleep quality and mood states are closely associated with training load, reaction time, and competitive performance, particularly during the tapering phase15. Another study conducted with Brazilian Paralympic track and field athletes indicated that sleep quality and anxiety levels worsened at the beginning of the competitive season16. Olympic athletes also have sleep patterns below the recommended levels for optimizing recovery and sports performance17. Therefore, there is a need to understand psychological factors occurring during sports training to provide greater control over the training process18. Furthermore, it has been suggested that sleep extension could be beneficial in improving sports performance19.
A recent literature review highlighted the need for further studies addressing areas related to physical performance in Parataekwondo, such as its specific physiological aspects20. Among the 38 studies analyzed, the review revealed a significant lack of research addressing key elements of physical performance, such as physiological demands, technical-tactical analysis, and psychological aspects like anxiety and sleep: domains critical to understanding performance fluctuations in elite-level training and competition contexts. Considering that Parataekwondo is a new sport, and that little is known about effective training methods and their impact on sleep, mood, and performance measures, the present study aims to compare training load, sleep, mood and physical performance in monitor international-level before a national Parataekwondo competition. The hypotheses are that, with the planned gradual reduction in training load approaching the competition, para-athletes will show improvements in reaction time, mood, and physical performance. Additionally, it is hypothesized that sleep quality will worsen in the week before the competition due to competitive anxiety.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Ethical Considerations
This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Minas Gerais, under approval numbers 58405022.0.0000.5149 and 27518619.4.0000.5149, in accordance with the ethical principles for research involving human participants. All participants signed the Informed Consent Form after being fully informed about the objectives, procedures and potential risks associated with the study.
Participants
A convenience sampling method was used: all para-athletes who are part of the Parataekwondo team of the Brazilian Paralympic Reference Center, linked to the Sports Training Center of the Federal University of Minas Gerais, were invited to participate. As inclusion criteria, para-athletes needed to have national and international sports classification by the Brazilian Paralympic Committee and the International Paralympic Committee, compete at the national and international levels during the Paralympic cycle for the Paris 2024 Games, and be in preparation for the Brazilian Parataekwondo Championship at the time of data collection. Four para-athletes (three men and one women), with a mean age of 36.5 ± 7.6 years, were included; this number constituted approximately 8.5% of the 47 participants nationwide, i.e. registered in the 2022 Brazilian Championship, according to the Brazilian Taekwondo Confederation. All included athletes were members of the Brazilian Parataekwondo National Team in the year of the competition (Table 1).
Table 1
Participant Characterization
| Athlete | Age | Weight Category | Sex | Sports Class | Competitive Level |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 44 | Up to 63 Kg | Male | K44 | International |
| 2 | 37 | Above 80 kg | Male | K44 | International |
| 3 | 39 | Up to 47 Kg | Female | K41 | International |
| 4 | 26 | Up to 58 kg | Male | K44 | International |
[i] K41- Functional class for para-athletes with unilateral amputation through or above the wrist, bilateral amputation below the elbow but above or through the wrist, unilateral dysmelia, or reduced muscle strength, K44- Functional class for para-athletes with unilateral upper limb amputation, bilateral amputation, dysmelia or significant loss of muscle strength in one arm, Kg - Kilograms.
Outcome measures
Sociodemographic Variables
In the first meeting, the para-athletes answered a sociodemographic questionnaire with information about age, sex, type of disability, sport class, weight category, and competitive level.
Mood
The Brazilian version of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) was validated by Rohlfs et al. (2008); it demonstrated good internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.70 to 0.84 for the six dimensions. The Brazilian Mood Scale consists of 24 questions with responses on a Likert scale ranging from (0) nothing to (4) extremely. To evaluate the responses, the questions were divided into six dimensions (tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and confusion)18. The most suitable profile for mood states is called the iceberg profile, where vigor is above the 50th percentile, while the other variables are below this percentile.
Sleep Parameters
The sleep-wake cycle was recorded for 14 consecutive days using an actigraph (Phillips Respironics Actiwatch Plus, Murrysville, PA, USA) on the non-dominant wrist when present, or on the existing wrist of each athlete. The data was recorded and transmitted to the Actware™ software. The device also measured the athletes’ rest and wake activity using the threshold >80 counts21. The data used for analysis included total sleep time (TST), sleep efficiency (SE), sleep onset latency (SOL), and wake after sleep onset (WASO). Recommended sleep parameters for athletes suggest that sleep duration should be between nine and ten hours, with WASO < 20 minutes, SOL < 30 minutes, and SE > 85%22.
Training Load
The internal training load was evaluated subjectively by the athletes through the Borg CR-10 scale, where the scale scores range from 0 (nothing) to 10 (extremely strong) for the question “What was the intensity of your training?”23. The Borg CR-10 scale was applied 20 to 30 minutes before the end of the training session, and the para-athletes were previously familiarized with the scale. The scores were provided individually, and the responses were recorded in a database. Additionally, the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE)24 for each training session were calculated as follows: Borg CR10 scale score × total session time (minutes), and the result was expressed in arbitrary units.
Reaction Time
Reaction time is a critical skill in combat sports, as it represents the interval between the presentation of an unexpected stimulus (for example, an opponent’s attack) and the initiation of the motor response25. This parameter is assessed among other by the Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT). The PVT is commonly used to measure and monitor changes in an individual’s ability to maintain maximum attention over a given period. In this study, it was measured using a rectangular device (model 192 from Ambulatory Monitoring Inc) with a digital display. The participants were familiarised with the device, and instructed to press a button on the device as soon as a red counter appeared on the digital display. When the button was pressed, the countdown stopped, showing the reaction time in milliseconds on the screen for 1 second, and then the test continued. The protocol used for the athletes was the same as the one employed by Rosa et al26, which consisted of performing the PVT for 5 minutes, with visual stimuli occurring at random intervals of 2 to 10 seconds26. All PVT assessments were performed before the start of training, and the test was conducted individually in a reserved room. The data used for analysis were the mean, minimum, and maximum reaction times (milliseconds) and the number of lapses (given by responses with times greater than 500 ms).
Alactic Anaerobic Power
The Multiple Frequency Speed of Kick Test (FSKTmult) consists of five stages, each lasting 10 seconds with a 10-second interval between stages. The objective of the test is to deliver the highest number of kicks within the set time, alternating between the right and left legs27. The para-athlete was positioned in front of a target (BoomBoxe®- São Paulo, Brazil) and was asked to deliver as many strikes as possible upon hearing a sound cue. The technique used during the test was the bandal tchagui kick, which is based on a semicircular kick striking the target with the dorsum of the foot.
Lower-limb Muscle Power
The countermovement jump (CMJ), a validated method for assessing lower-limb muscle power in taekwondo athletes, was performed using a contact platform (Ergojump Jump Pro 2.0 – Brazil). The para-athlete stood upright on the platform with hands placed on the hips to minimize arm swing influence, and feet positioned parallel at hip width. Upon an auditory signal, the athlete executed a rapid downward movement to approximately 90° of knee flexion, immediately followed by a vertical jump aiming for maximal height. Three CMJ attempts were performed with a 15 second rest interval between each trial. The mean height from the three jumps was calculated and used for further analysis, as commonly applied in studies investigating neuromuscular performance in combat sports27.
Procedures
The assessments were conducted two weeks before the main national competition of the year. The entire training program for the para-athletes was managed by the coaching staff without any influence from the researchers. The first assessment took place on Monday (Assessment 1 = AV1), followed by Friday of the first week (AV2), Monday (AV3), and Friday (AV4) of the second week, which was the day the para-athletes travelled for the competition.
The para-athletes wore an actigraph to record sleep parameters starting one day before the first assessment until the day after the fourth assessment, totalling 14 days. On specific assessment days, the para-athletes were evaluated before the training session using the Brazilian Mood Scale, Countermovement Jump (CMJ), Multiple Frequency Speed of Kick Test (FSKTmult), and Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT). After completing all these assessments individually, the para-athletes proceeded with their daily training session. Following the training, they indicated their perception of training load based on the Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE).
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software (version 22). The data were presented as mean and standard deviation (±) for quantitative and parametric variables, while qualitative variables were presented as medians (50th percentile) and 25th and 75th percentiles. The normality of the data was verified using the Shapiro-Wilk test. When making comparisons between evaluations, quantitative variables (sleep, FSKTmult, reaction time, and CMJ) were evaluated using one-way ANOVA for repeated measures with Tukey’s post hoc test, and qualitative variables (mood and PSE) with Friedman’s test with Tukey’s post hoc test. For all analyses, p ≤ 0.05 was considered significant.
RESULTS
The results show that the training load did differ significantly in relation to PSE (p = 0.07), total training time (p = 0.52) or AU (p = 0.24) between the evaluations; nor did it vary for CMJ (p = 0.22), reaction time (p = 0.46) or the number of lapses (p = 0.44), where no differences were found between time points. However, the total number of kicks in the FSKTmult was significantly higher in AV4 compared to AV1 (p = 0.04) (Table 2).
Table 2
Descriptive results of training load, mood, and performance
| Variable | AV1 | AV2 | AV3 | AV4 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Median (25% -75%) | |||||||
| RPE | 9.5 (2.4 – 7.1) | 8.5 (2.1 – 6.3) | 8.5 (2.1 – 6.4) | 10.0 (2.5 – 7.5) | |||
| Fatigue | 0.8 (0.1 – 1.8) | 1.8 (0.9 – 3.2) | 0.5 (0.1 – 1.3) | 1.6 (0.9 – 2.5) | |||
| Tension | 1.9 (1.8 – 2.4) | 1.6 (1.7 – 2.0) | 2.1 (0.7 – 2.6) | 1.4 (0.6 – 2.6) | |||
| Depression | 0.6 (0.1 – 1.3) | 0.4 (0.1 – 0.7) | 0.0 (0.0 – 0.4) | 0.0 (0.0 – 0.4) | |||
| Anger | 1.5 (0.1 – 2.8) | 0.0 (0.0 – 2.4) | 0.1 (0.0 – 2.3) | 0.1 (0.0 – 2.7) | |||
| Vigor | 2.0 (1.8 – 2.8) | 1.9 (1.6 – 2.8) | 2.6 (1.9 – 3.4) | 2.0 (1.8 – 2.6) | |||
| Confusion | 0.8 (0.1 – 1.4) | 0.1 (0.0 – 0.4) | 0.0 (0.0 – 1.1) | 0.0 (0.0 – 0.2) | |||
| Mean ± Standard Deviation | |||||||
| TTT | 181.3 ± 8.5 | 157.5 ± 43.5 | 151.3 ± 27.5 | 172.5 ± 35.7 | |||
| AU | 1681.3 ± 234.8 | 1310.0 ± 431.3 | 1306.3 ± 426.9 | 1635.0 ± 534.7 | |||
| CMJ (cm) | 26.9 ± 12.4 | 28.5 ± 13.2 | 27.4 ± 14.8 | 27.5 ± 12.9 | |||
| FSKT | 95.3 ± 9.6 | 98.8 ± 12.3 | 100 ± 11.2 | 103 ± 13.9* | |||
| Average RT (ms) | 258.5 ± 15.2 | 246.8 ± 26.5 | 245.5 ± 29.4 | 248.8 ± 17.1 | |||
| No. of lapses (RT>500 ms) | 0.5 ± 1.0 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.5 ± 1.0 | |||
Regarding mood, no significant differences were found for fatigue (p = 0.08), tension (p = 0.79), depression (p = 0.09), anger (p = 0.62), vigor (p = 0.07) or confusion (p = 0.19), were observed. However, the vigor scale showed a higher score than the tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion scales, characteristic of an iceberg profile (Table 2)
Regarding sleep parameters, total sleep time was higher in week 1 (p = 0.05) compared to week 2; in addition, sleep efficiency was higher in week 1 (p = 0.04) compared to week 2. However, no significant differences in sleep onset latency (p = 0.92) and wakefulness after sleep onset (p = 0.29) were noted between the evaluations (Table 3).
DISCUSSION
The aim of the present study was to monitor and compare mood, sleep, physical performance, and internal training load in the period before a Parataekwondo competition. Regarding mood, one hypothesis was that the predominant psychological factors in the weeks leading up to the competition, such as increased stress and anxiety, may negatively affect mood assessments. However, it was observed that an “iceberg profile” was present in all evaluations. This profile is recommended for athletes, characterized by the vigor scale showing a higher score than tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion scales28. This finding is consistent with a study by Casolino et al.29, which found 20 athletes to maintain an iceberg profile during a selection camp for the Italian Taekwondo Team. Similarly, da Silva Duarte et al.30 identified the iceberg profile among martial arts practitioners even during the adverse context of the COVID-19 pandemic, demonstrating emotional regulation and psychological resilience. In a Paralympic context, an iceberg profile was also identified among professional goalball para-athletes during training and competition, with vigor positively associated with successful actions and lower tension linked to fewer errors31. These findings suggest the importance of mood monitoring for para-athletes and recommend that coaches, sport psychologists, and multidisciplinary teams incorporate regular psychological assessments and resilience-building strategies to support athlete preparation and performance.
Regarding sleep parameters, the present study found a reduction in total sleep time (TST) and sleep efficiency (SE) when comparing week 1 to week 2. According to Watson32, improvements in recommended sleep parameters can positively affect reaction time. Despite reductions in TST and SE, the para-athletes maintained stable reaction times and number of lapses across assessments, showing no significant variation in these cognitive performance indicators. This stability may indicate effective psychological and physiological adaptation during the pre-competition period. Furthermore, a study with weightlifting athletes observed reduced SE associated with increased training load on the same day33, which aligns with the high internal training load maintained by para-athletes and possible influence on SE reduction. The low TST observed also corresponds to findings from other studies with para-athletes34-37. In practical terms, sleep management strategies should be considered by coaches and support teams to optimize recovery and cognitive function, especially during periods of intensified training load. Monitoring sleep alongside training variables may help identify athletes at risk of insufficient recovery.
Regarding physical performance, Sant’Ana et al.38 reported that fatigue affects reaction time and kick impact in Taekwondo athletes. Reaction time is a critical skill in combat sports like Parataekwondo, particularly for visual stimuli39. Previous research indicated no significant variation in reaction times across sports classes40. In our study, despite the maintenance of a high internal training load, the perception of fatigue among the tested para-athletes remained relatively stable, which may explain the consistency observed in reaction time and number of lapses. In relation to specific performance tests, the total number of kicks in the FSKTmult increased significantly from AV1 to AV4, whereas countermovement jump (CMJ) height did not change significantly. Although both tests show measures of physical performance, countermovement jump heights did not demonstrate any significant correlation with FSKTmult performance41. This suggests improvement in sport-specific performance without changes in general explosive power.
Finally, regarding internal training load, in the present study, coaches planned a gradual tapering of loads as the competition approached, consistent with known strategies to improve performance42,15. However, the para-athletes maintained consistently high internal training load, total training time, and session rating of perceived exertion (AU) during evaluations. This apparent contradiction is explained by prioritization of an international competition two weeks after the Brazilian Championship within the periodization plan. This finding underscores the importance for coaches and exercise physiologists to consider the broader competitive calendar in training load planning, balancing tapering and peak performance demands across multiple events.
As it is a new sport in the Paralympic program, there is limited research on the classification of Parataekwondo athletes. So far, Brazil still has a relatively low number of para-athletes, with only 47 participants registered in the 2022 Brazilian Championship, according to the Brazilian Taekwondo Confederation. In addition to the small sample size, another important limitation concerns the use of self-report instruments, such as the Borg CR-10 Scale and the Brazilian Mood Scale. Subjective measures are susceptible to biases such as social desirability, memory recall bias, and individual interpretations of scale items, factors that can affect the accuracy and reliability of responses. Future studies should consider including objective physiological or behavioral measures, such as heart rate variability or performance metrics, to complement subjective data. Furthermore, longitudinal designs and multicenter samples would help improve the generalizability of findings and deepen the understanding of mood profiles and perceived exertion in Parataekwondo athletes.
The study has some limitations. Firstly, it lacks of control over external loads. Secondly, it used a preparation period for two closely-spaced competitions, which may cause confusion regarding the actual moment of training planning and the athletes’ competitive focus. Nevertheless, out findings can assist coaches and technical teams in improving the organization of their training programs, especially before a competition, aiming to optimize sports performance in the sport. Regarding sleep, future studies can explore strategies for managing training schedules and sleep duration, assessing the responses on the same parameters evaluated in the present study.
Although this research was conducted with a sample of four high-performance athletes at the international level, it is important to initiate further scientific investigations in the sport, strengthening science and practice in the field. It is also important to emphasize the exploratory nature of this study, and to highlight that its findings are preliminary and specific to the group assessed. Therefore, caution should be exercised in interpreting these results, and to avoid excessive generalizations. New research with larger and more diverse samples is recommended to confirm and expand these findings, contributing to a more robust and applicable understanding in the context of Parataekwondo.
CONCLUSIONS
The evidence found showed that before the Brazilian Parataekwondo Championship, the athletes showed a deterioration in total sleep time and sleep efficiency in week 2 compared to week 1. However, an improvement in specific performance (FSKTmult) was found on the last training day before the competition, compared to the first evaluated day of training. However, no significant changes were found in the countermovement jump (CMJ), reaction time, mood, or training load. In terms of sports performance, all the athletes analyzed won medals in the competition, including two golds, one silver, and one bronze.
